‘Education is the manifestation of the perfection already in man’
— Swami Vivekananda
INTRODUCTION TO HIGHER EDUCATION
According to the Ministry of Human Resource Development (Higher Education Department), Higher Education is defined in two ways:
1. Education, which is obtained after completing 12 years of schooling and is pursued for a duration of at least nine months.
OR
2. After completing 10 years of schooling, it is pursued for a duration of at least 3 years.
Some examples are Ph.D., M.Phil., Post-graduation, Graduation, PG Diploma, Diploma, Certificate, etc., in any stream, like Arts, Commerce, Science, Engineering, Architecture, etc.
Higher education provides people with an opportunity to reflect on the critical, social, economical, cultural, moral and spiritual issues faced by humanity. It contributes to the national development through dissemination of specialized knowledge and skills. Therefore, it is considered as a crucial factor for survival. Being at the apex of the educational pyramid, it also has a key role in producing teachers for the educational system. Higher education is a key element in ‘demographic dividend’ and also that it intends to make optimum utilization of human resources specifically in the age group from 15–59 years.
Indian higher education system, which includes technical education is one of the largest in the world, just after the United States and China. Formal education system can be categorized into three parts, namely primary, secondary and tertiary education. Tertiary education is a wider term and it is higher education plus vocational education. According to the perspective of the NET Paper I, our focus is on higher education. Secondary education begins to expose students to the varied roles of science, humanities and social sciences and also to vocational streams. This is also an appropriate stage to provide children with a sense of history and national perspective and give them opportunities to understand their constitutional duties and rights as citizens. The Board of Secondary Education plays a main role in imparting this education. Elementary or primary education adopts child centred approach. It continues up to 14 years.
There are three principle levels of qualification in
higher education as listed below.
1. Undergraduate level leading to bachelor’s degree.
2. Postgraduate level leading to master’s degree.
3. Research level leading to PhD., Fellowship or Post Doctorate
Some higher education institutes provide diplomas as well as Chartered Accountancy, PGDBA and PGDCA. Most undergraduate courses take three years except for certain professional courses, such as engineering and medicine. Postgraduate courses are generally of two-year duration.
Institutions of Higher Learning and Education in Ancient India
‘Education during the Vedic age was a journey from mortality to immortality, from chaos to spiritual bliss.’
Ancient education system has been very wide in India. Here, we intend to cover the basic tenets only. In ancient times, there were two education systems, such as ‘Vedic’ and ‘Buddhist’. The Vedic system refers to Vedas, the six Vedangas (phonetics, ritualistic knowledge, grammar, exegetics, metrics and astronomy), Upanishads, the six Darshanas (Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta), Puranas (history), Tarka shastra (logic). There were some allied subjects also. Sanskrit was the medium of instruction in Vedic system. Vedanga was the synonym of all these subjects taken together, where it corroborates the performance of sacrifice, correct pronunciation, knowledge of prosody, etymology, grammar and Jyotishi or the science of calendar.
First of all, we can focus on Vedic education, with semblances of Sutras, Brahmanism. Knowledge was passed on orally from one generation to another in ancient India. Basically, education involved the comprehension of three basic stages involved in the process.
1. Sravana: Stage of acquiring knowledge of ‘Shrutis’ by listening.
2. Manana: Meaning pupils to think, analyse themselves about what they heard, assimilate the lessons taught by their teacher and make their own inferences.
3. Nididhyasana: Meaning comprehension of truth and apply it into real life.
The main goal of life is self-realization despite all people have different inclinations. The preservation and enrichment of culture, character and cultivation of noble ideals were the main aims. There was to be holistic development of the individual by taking care of both the inner and the outer self.
Knowledge was divided into two broad streams as given below.
1. The Paravidya: The higher knowledge and the spiritual wisdom.
2. The Aparavidya: The lower knowledge and the secular sciences.
Under vedic education, special attention was paid to correct pronunciation of words, Pada or even letters. Indian sages devoted themselves to the study of a supra-sensible world and spiritual powers and moulded their life accordingly.
Pure oral teaching (from the lips of the teacher) was regarded as purely Vedic. The second method of teaching was ‘Chintan’ (thinking). So the primary subject of educa-
tion was the mind itself.
The admission criteria were moral fitness and unimpeachable conduct. The discipline of brahmacharya (celibacy) was compulsory. It was one of the sacred duties of the pupil to serve his preceptor. ‘Brahm Sangh’ was the opportunity for students to acquire higher knowledge.
The society and state did not interfere much with the curriculum of studies or regulating the payment of fees.
A typical ancient Indian educational system was fully and compulsorily residential. The student had to live in the house of his teacher for learning purposes. The relationship was kind of spiritual.
Education was free most of the times, and that too to upheld the dignity of labour, even if he was at the highest intellectual course. Students used to learn through seminars, discussions and debates.
The admission of students was made by the formal ceremony Upanayana (initiation). In the new home of Guru, he had a second birth and was called Dvijya or twice born. Education would start at the age of five with a ceremony called Vidyarambha, where it includes learning the alphabets and worshipping goddess Saraswathi. The Upanayana ceremony would start between the ages of eight to twelve years. He would now be called ‘Brahmacharin’. A Bramacharin after finishing his education is eligible to become a Grihasta or a householder.
There was a high standard of learning for women also. In house, they might learn music and dancing. They had to undergo the Upanayana ceremony. There were two classes of educated women as stated below.
1. Sadyodwahas: They are people who prosecuted studies till their marriages.
2. Brahmavadinis: They are people who did not marry and pursued studies throughout out their lives.
Women were also taught the Vedas and Vedangas, but the extent of their study was restricted only to those hymns which were necessary for the Yajna (sacrifice)
or other ritualistic operations. Women sages were called Rishikas. Here, we can name, scholarly women like Maitreyi and Gargi.
The fundamental principles of social, political and economic life were combined into a comprehensive theory, which is sometimes called religion in Hindu thought also. There was a total combination of ideals, practices and conduct called into a Dharma (Religion, Virtue or Duty) here. They identified their duty with devotion to the ideal of ‘summum bonum’ of mankind. Human soul was the material world. Sometimes, the ultimate aim of education emerged as the Chitta Vritti Nirodha, which is the control of mental activities connected with the concrete world.
The doctrine of action (Karma) occupies a verysignificant place.
The word Veda means knowledge and are nitya (routine). They are basic to life and four in number:
Rig veda: It is the earliest work of all Indo-European languages and humanity that comprises ‘Plain Living’ and ‘High Thinking’. Gayatri mantram that is also found in Sama Veda and Yajur Veda touch the highest point of knowledge and sustain human souls to this day. The Rig Veda is a collection of 1028 hymns.
Sama veda: The Sama Veda is a collection of verses from the Rig Veda for liturgical purposes. Liturgical is the participation of people in the work of God.
Yajur veda: It is the collection of prose mantras, though the duty of chanting the hymns on the occasion of sacrifice was mainly undertaken by the Hotri, the first order of priesthood.
In due course of time, the fourth Veda called the Atharva Veda was also recognized, where it is more original in contents. The majority of mantras have not been adapted from the Rig Veda. The Atharva Veda is thoroughly secular in character containing a vivid description of various arts and sciences.
Rig Veda mentions women Rais called Brahmanavadinis to denote equality between the sexes in the field of knowledge.
Chronologically, Vedas can be divided into the following two parts.
1. The early vedic (1500–1000 BCE) when most of the Rig Vedas were composed.
2. The later vedic (1000–600 BCE) when remaining vedas were composed.
Post Vedic education also continued with three types of institutions, namely Gurukulas, Parishads (Academies) and Sammelans (Conferences). The first lesson that was taught to the student was the performance of sandhya and also reciting of gayatri.
The period of the Vedic literature was followed by that of Sutra literature, between 600 BC and 200 BC. When Vedic literature spread, there was a need for some amicable institutions to take care of them. This brought Sutras (Dharam Sutras) literature with great principles of social conduct into existence. The Yoga of Patanjali, Nyaya of Gautama and Mimamsa Shastras were its products.
Besides, Smritis were written for proper guidance of life. The Sutra period was identical with that of Upanishad period.
In this way, the study of philosophy was complete in itself. It presented a correct solution to the problems of discipline, humanity and supreme knowledge. Ramayana and the Mahabharata are the main epics of ancient India. These epics give us glimpses into the creed of militarism of that age.
A full-fledged Ashram is described as consisting of several departments, such as Agnisthana (for fire worship and prayers), Brahmasthana (Vedas), Vishnusthana (Department for teaching Raja Niti, Arthaniti, and Vartta), etc.
About Brahmic education, Mr. F. E. Keay, in his book named ‘History of Indian Education, Ancient and Later Times’ observes that not only did Brahman education developed a system of education which survived the crumbling empires and the changes in society, but they also, through all these thousands of years, kept a glow
of the torch of higher learning and numbered amongst them many great thinkers who have left their mark not only on the learning of India but upon the intellectual
life of the world.
In Brahmanic education, instead of collective teaching, individual teaching prevailed. Thus, there were more opportunities to develop the inner talents of the students, where it was not only theoretical but also gave the practical knowledge to face the struggles of life. Here, the course of study was much wider than that of Vedic period. The education was based on psychological principles.
Buddhist Education
‘Buddhism involved a more liberal approach towards learning’
Lord Buddha realized the necessity of education for devotees at large. There was expansion of education. Some monasteries and viharas were established. Later on, many of these monasteries become full-fledged centres of education, where Bhikshus, Bhikshunis and common people and foreigners were given chance to acquire education.
Consequently, Nalanda and Takshila developed into Universities of International importance. They were managed on the basis of democratic principles. Thousands of learned teachers were appointed. Cultural relations with many Asian countries are mainly due to these educational institutions and their working system that existed hundreds of years back.
Here, a child would start his education at the age of eight after Prabrajya or Pabbajja ceremony that was open to all castes. This ceremony was open to person of all castes. After the initiation ceremony, his education would start as preceptor (monk). He was now called Sramana and used to wear a yellow robe. A Sramana was given a full status of monkhood or Bhikshu. Pali was the medium of instruction in the Buddhist system of education for vocational and religious educations.
The main subjects or topics of study in Buddhist system of education were three Pitakas (Sutta, Vinaya and Abhidhamma), works of all the eighteen schools of Buddhism, Hetu-vidya, Sabda-vidya, Chikitsa-vidya, etc. The Vedas were also studied for acquiring comparative knowledge.
The art of writing was known very well in India. In Jaina, works like Samavaya Sutra and Pragnapara Sutra reference to 18 different scripts are available. Buddhist literary works like Lalitavistara and Mahavastu mention different types of scripts in vogue. While the former refer to 64 types of scripts and the latter to about a dozen types of scripts. Regarding the curricula of school students, the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang says that children began by learning the alphabet and then began the study of five subjects, like grammar, arts and crafts, medicine, logic and philosophy. This was the general scheme of studies for laymen of all sects. The other subjects of study were law (dharmashastras), arithmetic, ethics, art and architecture (silpasastra), military science (dhanurvidya), performing arts, etc.
Vocational Education
Ancient Indian literature refers to 64 professions or arts which includes weaving, dyeing, spinning, art of tanning leather, manufacture of boats, chariots, the art of training elephants and horses, the art of making jewels and so on. Young men used to work as apprentices under a trainer for a number of years and gained expertise in their respective professions. Education was free and provided with boarding and lodging by the trainer.
Knowledge
Knowledge was imparted orally and the different methods of learning are as follows.
1. Memorization: It mainly deals with retention of facts.
2. Critical analysis: Here, we can cite examples of Sri Ramanuja and Sri Madhvacharya.
3. Critical introspection: Sravana (listening), Manana (contemplation) and Nididhyasana (concentrated contemplation) of the truth so as to realize it was another method to study Brahma Vidya (Vedanta).
4. Story telling: Buddha mainly used this method to explain his doctrines.
5. Question and answer method: For further probe into the discussion.
6. Hands-on method: For practical and professional courses such as medical science.
7. Seminars: The students also gained knowledge through debates and discussions which were held at frequent intervals
It might take twelve years for a student to develop expertise in one Veda and thereafter, it would be twelve years, twenty years, thirty six years and so on. A graduate was called Snataka and the graduation ceremony was called Samavartana.
Itihas (history), Anviksiki (logic), Mimamsa (interpretation) Shilpashastra (architecture), Arthashastra (polity), Varta (agriculture, trade, commerce, animal husbandry) and Dhanurvidya (archery). Physical education too was an important curricular area and pupils participated in krida (games, recreational activities), vyayamaprakara (exercises), dhanurvidya (archery) for acquiring martial skills and yogasadhana (training the mind and body), shastrartha (learned debates) could be termed as the main subjects.
Types of Teachers
• Acharya: A teacher to teach Vedas without charging fee from the students.
• Upadhyaya: To earn his livelihood and taught only a portion of the Veda or Vedangas.
• Charakas: Wandering scholars to visit the nation for higher knowledge, usually regarded as possible source of knowledge by Satapatha Brahmana. Hiuen Tsang gained the knowledge this way.
• Guru used to lead a grihastha life by imparting education and by maintaining his family.
• Yaujanasatika: They were famous for their profound scholarship, students from distant places would visit them to seek education.
• Sikshaka: Instruction in arts such as dancing.
Educational Institutions
• Gurukul was the house of the teacher who was a settled house-holder.
• Parishads: Here, the students usually settle for higher education, they were originally conducted by three Brahmins. The number gradually increased, even a Parishad consisted of twenty Brahmins who were well versed in philosophy, theology and law. Sangam was also such Parishad during first century CE in Tamilnadu, here some works were submitted for criticism also. These gatherings were patronized by kings.
• Goshti or Conferences was a national gathering summoned by a great king in which representatives of various schools were invited to meet and exchange their views.
• Ashramas or hermitages were another centre where students from distant and different parts of the country flocked together for learning around famous sages and saints. For example, the Ashrama of Bharadwaj at Prayag.
• Vidyapeeta was an educational institution for spiritual aspects started by the great acharya. Sri Shankara started such institutions at Sringeri, Kanchi, Dwarka, Puri and Badri.
• Ghathikas: Here, both the teachers and the pupils met and discussed. The cultured scholars would meet, discuss and clash also.
• Agraharas were settlements of Brahmins in villages where they used to teach.
• Mathas: They were mainly for residing and receiving religious and secular instructions. These mathas belonged to both Shaiva and Vaishnava sects and were normally attached to some temple associations.
• Brahmapuri: A settlement of learned Brahmins in towns and cities or in any selected area for education purpose.
• Vihara: A Buddhist monastery where all Buddhist preaching and philosophy were taught
Main Educational Institutions of Higher Education During Ancient India
India enjoyed a prominent position in all spheres of life, be it social, education or economics. The following are the few prominent Buddhist institutions.
1. Taxila: Taxila was the capital of Gandhar Kingdom. Taxila has been described as the first university established across the globe in 7th century BCE. Hiuen Tsang in his records mentioned the university of Taxila to be at par with Nalanda and Vikramshila universities.
Taxila was an important centre of Brahmanical education, it maintained its stature even during the Buddhism in Northern India. It had attracted many students from other nations.
Taxila university was famous for medical studies. Panini, the well known grammarian, Kautilya, the minister of Chandragupta Maurya, and Charaka, a medical teacher of repute had been part of it.
There was no popularly organized institution or university. Admission of the students as per decision of the teacher, though they were taught subjects as per choice. Usually, the minimum age was more than sixteen years.
There was no exam system, so there were no degrees or diplomas.
The main branches were Vedatrayi (Three Vedas), Vedanta, Vyakaran, Ayurveda, eighteen Sippas (crafts), military education, astronomy, agriculture, commerce, snake bite cure, etc.
It was popular as training centre in Indian Military science. Panini was an expert in Surgery and Medicine was its main product. The same was the case for Kautilya, the famous author of Arthashastra. There was no caste distinction. Taxila had been influenced by Greek culture also.
2. Nalanda (Bihar): It is located near Rajgriha in the province of Bihar, it has been the birth place of Sariputta, a favourite disciple of Lord Buddha, who is closely linked with Mahayana.
It was a Buddhist centre of learning from 427 CE to 1197 CE. It has been known as ‘one of the first great universities’ in recorded history.
A historian writes, ‘The University of Nalanda was the educational center of international moral comparable in the universalism of its thought, the wide range of its studies, the international character of its community to the greatest universities of modern time like Oxford, Cambridge, Paris and Harvard.’
It is stated that at one time there were 10,000 monks staying at Nalanda. Of these, 1510 were teachers and the remaining 8500 were students belonging to various levels of attainments and studying various subjects.
Its real importance begins with the year 450 CE. Then it was important for three centuries. Hiuen Tsang came here in 7th century CE. It progressed a lot during Gupta dynasty. In year 2010, Nalanda
University was set up in Bihar as a Central University with Japan, China, Thailand, Laos, Singapore, Australia by collaborating in various manners.
This university was also renowned for its cosmopolitan and catholic character, the University of Nalanda was famous for its faculty of Logic.
Dwar Pandi, a teacher was the incharge for admission to the university.
Eight big halls named as Samgharama and the three hundred study chambers have been the main attraction.
It was considered to be a great centre of learning throughout the whole of Asia. There were somewhat tough admission criteria. The minimum age limit was twenty years for admission into the university, many facilities were being offered free of cost.
The Kulpati or Chancellor of the University was Shilbadra who had studied all Sutras and Shastras books.
There were three methods of teaching, namely verbal and explanatory, lectures and debates and discussions.
The university had a very big library corresponding to its reputation that had nine storeys. The library had three departments known as ‘Ratna Sagar’.
Nalanda made unique contributions to the evolution, expansion and refinement of Indian culture. Bakhtiar Khilzi put the university towards destruction by the end of 12th century CE.
3. Valabhi: Hiuen Tsang, I-Tsing had found Valabhi in the western side of India as glorious as Nalanda. It was not just a centre of religious education as of other secular subjects, such as Arthasastra (economics), Niti Shastra (law) and Chikitsa Sastra (medicine) were also taught here.
It was mainly the centre for Hinayana form of Buddhism.
Valabhi was running in good financial position till 755 CE but some portion were destroyed due to Arab invasion. It still continued till 12th century.
4. Vikramshila: It was set up and established by the Emperor Dharampala of Pal dynasty in the 8th century in Northern Magadh on the bank of the river Ganges. This university was famous for religious teachings and here 108 scholars were appointed as the incharge and Acharyas of the various temples. It attracted a large number of scholars from Tibet, who came there for higher studies. The university was later organized into six colleges. The central
building was called the Vigyan Bhawan. A Dwar pandit was appointed at the main gate.
Mahasthavir was the highest authority of the University, being known as the Kulpati of the Gurukula. The main subjects of study were Vyakaran, Logic, Philosophy, Tantra Shastra and Karamkanda. Later on Tantra Shastra gained prominence. Degrees were conferred on the graduates and post-graduates at the time of Samavartana (Convocation) by the rulers of Bengal. It was destroyed by Bhaktiyar Khilji in 1203 CE. Thus, a mighty educational center fell. The University of Vikramasila was renowned for Tantric Buddhism.
5. Odantapuri: This university had been established long before the Kings of Pala dynasty came into power in Magadha. Odantpuri could not attain that level of fame and repute which either Nalanda or Vikramshila had accomplished. Still nearly 1000 monks and students resided and received education there. It attracted students from Tibet too.
6. Jagaddala: Pal King, Raja Ram Pal of Bengal constructed a monastery and named it as Jagaddala. It remained as the centre of Buddhist education for about 100 years. It was again destroyed during invasion in 1203 CE.
In Jagaddala, there were many scholars notable for their knowledge. The books were translated in Tibetan language.
7. Mithila: In the Upanishadic age, Mithila became a
prominent seat of Brahmanical education. It was
named as Videha.
It continued with its glory from Raja Janak upto Buddhist period. Later on this place produced devotees of Lord Krishna.
Famous poet Vidyapati, who had written in Hindi and Jaideo, a prominent poet of Sanskrit literature was born here.
From 12th century to 15th century, besides literature and fine arts, scientific subjects were also taught there.
(a) There was a Nyaya Shastra and Tarka Shastra.
(b) Gangesha Upadhyaya founded a school of New Logic (Navya-Nyaya).
(c) Epoch- making work named Tattva Chintamani had been written.
Mithila produced a number of other scholars and literary celebrities.
Even upto Emperor Akbar, it continued to flourish as an important centre of education and culture.
8. Nadia: Situated at the confluence of Ganga and Jalangi rivers in Bengal, it was formerly called Navadweep. Education in Nadia University was imparted at three centres namely Navadweep,
Shantipur and Gopaalpura.
(a) The lyrics of Gita Govind by Jaideva reverberated here.
(b) A school of logic owed its existence to Raghunatha Shiromani.
(c) Learning and efficiency in discussions was considered to be an essential qualification of a teacher of this university.
9. Ujjain: It was famous for its secular learning including mathematics and astronomy.
10. Salotgi in Karnataka was an important centre of learning. It had 27 hostels for its students who hailed from different provinces. This college was richly endowed in 945 CE by Narayana the minister of Krishna III with the revenues of houses, land and levies on marriages and other ceremonies.
11. Ennayiram in Tamilnadu provided free boarding and tuition to 340 students. Other important centers of learning in South India were Sringeri and Kanchi.
Decline of Ancient Education
The standard of education was so high in India that despite many hardships, students from different parts of the world used to stay in India and no student from India had to go abroad for knowledge. Indian scholars were in great demand abroad.
With the invasion of Muslim conquerors, nearly all the centres of higher learning of the Hindus and Buddhists were destroyed and were replaced by mosques. During the decline of Buddhist system, Vedic system of education moved to South. It was under the patronage of Vijayanagara rulers that the Vedic savants Sayana and Madhava wrote commentaries on the Vedas.
With regards to the vocational system of education many new crafts and skills were introduced in India after the advent of Muslim into India and till the establishment of British rule in India, many industries, like textile manufacturing, ship building, jewelry making and other allied industries flourished which shows the skill and expertise Indians had and in turn the knowledge they had received from their teachers. The products of Indian industries not only fulfilled the needs of Asian and African countries but were also in great demand in the markets of Europe.
Astronomical treatise like Brahmasiddhanta and Khanda Khadyaka of Brahmagupta and medical books of Charaka, Susruta and Vagbhatta were translated to Arabic. Buddha and Shankara (philosophy), Kautilya (political science and administration), Sushruta (surgery), Charaka (medicine), Kanada (physicist; propounder of atomic theory), Nagarjuna (Chemistry), Aryabhatta and Varahamihira (Astronomy), Baudhayana and Brahmagupta (mathematics) and Patanjali (yoga).
Muslim ruler elite promoted urban education in terms of libraries and literary societies. They founded primary schools (maktabs) in which students learned reading, writing and basic Islamic prayers, and secondary schools (madrasas) to teach and train for advanced language skills. Often attached to mosques, Islamic schools were open to the poor but were gender segregated, often only for boys. Muslim girls of affluent families studied at home.
From the beginning of the Mughal empire in India in 1526 until the end of Mughal political presence in 1848, Persian was the court language, and elite boys could attend Persian schools to learn literature, history, ethics, law, administration, and court protocol. More intimate settings for the spread of ideas were the retreats (khanqah) of famous Sufis (Muslims who professed mystic doctrines). These new educational models did not necessarily displace older ones, although state patronage patterns shifted. Sanskrit academies continued to teach young male Brahmans literature and law; apprenticeship and commercial schools taught boys the skills needed for business. Education for girls was an exception rather than a rule.
Evolution of Higher Learning and Research in Post Independence India
Before we can discuss Indian education post independence, it’s better to get some idea about British education system. Modern education began in India under the British rule. Before the British, India had its own educational system like the Gurukulas and the Madrassas.
The main three basic agents of modern education in India were as follows.
1. The British Government or East India Company
2. Christian missionaries
3. Indian intellectuals and reformers
The company wanted some educated Indians who could assist them in the administration of the land.
The British also wanted to understand the local customs and laws well. Warren Hastings established the Calcutta Madrassa in 1781 for the teaching of Muslim law. In 1791, a Sanskrit College was started in Varanasi by Jonathan Duncan for the study of Hindu philosophy and law system.
Many schools were started in India with the purpose of Christianising and ‘civilizing’ the native Indians. The Charter Act of 1813 was the first step towards education being made an objective of the government. There was some split in the government viewpoint about the nature of education, either it should be traditional or
modern.
In 1835, under Lord Wlliam Bentick, it was decided to introduce English as the medium of instruction. Macaulay minutes refer to his proposal of education for the Indians. It focused upon English education instead of traditional Indian learning, he told oriental culture was ‘defective’ and ‘unholy’. He believed in educating a few upper and middle class students. Ultimately, education would trickle down to the masses. This was called infiltration theory. He wished to create a class of Indians who were Indian in colour and blood but
English in taste and affiliation.
In 1835, the Elphinstone College (Bombay) and the Calcutta Medical College were set and the Universities of Calcutta, Madras and Mumbai was established in 1850s.
There was a huge demand for clerks and other administrative roles in the company’s functioning as it was cost effective and it was the prime motive.
There was Hunter Commission (1882–83) to suggest the segregation of primary and higher education. In 1902, Universities Commission was set up under Sir Thomas Raleigh to enquire into conditions and prospects of setting up of universities in India. As a result, Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904. In 1905, National Council of Education was set up in 1905 by Swadeshi nationalist leaders and Jadavpur University is the result of it. Shri Rabindranath Tagore started Shantiniketan in Bengal during the era.
In 1913, there was a resolution on education policy. In 1917, Sandler Commission (popular as Calcutta University Commission) suggested the separation of intermediate education from degree colleges, it was
precursor to 10+2+3 system and setting up of Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE). Government of India Act made education as provincial subject.
Hartog Commission (1929) focused on quality and standards of education.
Sapru Committee (1934) focused upon unemployment issue. Abbot Wood Report (1937) recommended English as a medium of instruction at university level. Wardha Scheme of Education (1937) recommended Nai Talim or Basic Education, as a recommendation of
Mahatma Gandhi.
Sargent Report (1944) also known as Scheme of Post War Educational Development in India recommended setting up of University Grant Commission.
No doubt it spread western education among Indians, but the rate of literacy was abysmally low during British rule. The state of women education was pathetic. This was because the government did not want to displease the orthodox nature of Indians and also because women could not generally be employed as clerks. Scientific and technical education was mostly ignored by the British government.
In the new scenario after independence, education was recognized as the major element of socio-cultural, technical, political and economic changes.
Government of India took several initiatives to improve and promote higher education in the country after independence.
Radhakrishnan Commission (1948–1949)
Radhakrishnan Commission also known as University Education Commission, suggested the integration of secondary education and higher education by setting up of UGC. It also recommended the setting up of rural universities.
Mudaliar Commission (1952–1953)
It is also popular as the Secondary Education Commission. It recommended introducing a three-year secondary and a four-year higher education system. It also advocated the setting up of multipurpose schools and vocational training institutes.
Committee on Emotional Integration (1961)
It was set up under the chairmanship of Dr Sampurnanand to study the role of educational programmes for youth, in general, and students in schools and colleges, in particular, in order to strengthen the process of emotional integration.
Kothari Commission (1964–1966)
The commission was titled as ‘Education and National Development’ report. It is a very progressive report. It proposed a three-year degree course and a four-year honours degree course.
Establishment of Indian Education Service (IES) to
improve the quality of Indian higher education with emphasis on quality teaching faculties to vocationalize secondary education was recommended. It recommended that 6% of the national income should be spent on education.
Education Subject in Concurrent List (1976)
India has a federal setup and education is the concur- rent responsibility of both the centre as well of states. Post-independence, education (including university education) was the responsibility of the states, while the centre was given the function of coordination and determination of standards.
However, in 1976, through Entry 25 (42nd Constitutional Amendment) in the Concurrent List of the Constitution of India, the centre was also given the responsibility along with the states for all levels of education.
National Policy on Education
Kothari Commission was followed by the National Policy on Education (NPE) of 1968 and 1986. These emphasized on improving the quality of higher education level and also proposed imparting higher education by distance learning mode.
Both policies suggested that 6% of our national income should be spent on education.
Note: It is ironical that though the outlay of 6% of GDP was recommended almost 50 years ago, we are still far from reaching the mark in view of the present outlay not crossing even 4% of GDP. The expenses for education in India has been lower than the world average. Globally, 4.9% of GDP was spent on education in 2010, whereas India spent only 3.3% of GDP, according to World Bank data. In 2014–15 budget, the figure was 3.9%.
If India has to realize its potential economic growth rate of 8–10% as envisaged in budget 2016–17, then it needs a skilled, trained and educated workforce to make it possible.
Here, it is important to mention that the second generation economic reforms followed by market oriented reforms started by the Government of India in 1991 also called for making changes in the education system of India.
Gnanam Committee (1993)
It recommended flexibility and autonomy for ensuring academic excellence and asked for restricting the unchecked growth of deemed universities. It emphasized the need for a National Commission on higher education and research to regulate the quality of education and to encourage research in university system.
Sam Pitroda Committee
It was established in 2007. It is also popularly known as National Knowledge Commission (NKC). It recommended the restructuring of curricula to meet the demand for multidisciplinary professionals and
criteria-based resource allocation to ensure maintenance of standards and strategic preferences to pro-mote excellence in higher education. It supported the entry of foreign universities and also favoured reducing the burden of affiliation of colleges on universities. NKC recommended increasing the number of universities to 1500 by 2015.
Yashpal Committee
It suggested scrapping of all higher education, regulatory or monitoring bodies and creation of a super regulator, i.e., a seven-member Commission for Higher Education and Research (CHER). State Higher Education Councils would form the second tier of the
system.
It also recommended that the deemed university status be abandoned and that all deserving deemed varsities be either converted into fullfledged universities or scrapped. The committee stressed the need for more attention to undergraduate programmes and a multidisciplinary approach to learning. Yashpal Committee also strongly recommended reducing the burden of affiliation of colleges on the universities and a GRE-like test be evolved for university education.
The recommendations of Yashpal Committee and
the National Knowledge Commission emanated from the realization that fragmentation of various fields of knowledge in higher education led to inadequate growth of interdisciplinary learning.
Sharma Committee
Set up under Prof. M.M. Sharma, it deliberated upon the development of science and technology education in India. The committee suggested the establishment of Indian Institute of Science, Education, and Research (IISER). It also recommended the expansion of technical education, assuring quality and providing access and affordability for technical education. The committee also recommended that Rs. 500 crores be spent on research in basic sciences every year by the UGC.
Dr Anil Kakodkar Committee
It was constituted to recommend strategies to improve technical education in the country. It recommended 2% budget in every institution to be earmarked for research.
K. B. Pawar Committee
Constituted by the UGC, the committee recommended four models of Public–Private Partnership (PPP) in higher education.
ORTHODOX CONVENTIONAL AND NON-CONVENTIONAL EDUCATION
Efficiency of conventional and non-conventional methods of teaching is influenced by a combination of collective, group, pair and individual work.
There are basically four factors that help us to decide
which system to opt for and they are listed below.
1. Length of the programme
2. Technical access
3. Cost comparison
4. Location restriction
Orthodox Education
Knowledge was passed on orally from one generation to another as per orthodox education. Even now education is being imparted in orthodox manner.
Orthodox education involved three basic processes, in which it included ‘Sravana’ (stage of acquiring knowledge of ‘Shrutis’ by listening).
Two, ‘Manana’ (meaning pupils to think, analyse themselves about what they heard, assimilate the lessons taught by their teacher and make their own inferences,).
Three ‘Nidhyasana’ (meaning comprehension of truth and and apply/use it into real life).
C. Rajgopalachari had said, ‘If there is honesty in India today, any hospitality, any charity any aversion to evil, any love to be good, it is due to whatever remains of the old faith and the old culture’. Tolerance, truth, Ahimsa, peace and non-aggression are the hallmark of Indian culture. With a rational mind, raising it from ignorance, one can understand the greatness of Vedic literature.
During ancient times, much of our education system was dependent upon God, heaven and hell. God rewards us with heaven in case some justice is done and with hell in case no justice is done. Further, the
existence of God is to be proved through very deep logical analysis and discussions. All the seminars and conferences in ancient India ran on single subject, as it includes the existence and nature of God. The resulting balanced society, without corruption and chaos gives immense happiness to the life of the humanity. Sometimes ancient materials and technologies were far better for health and environmental balance of the world. Thus again, there is focus towards orthodox education even with the help from modern technologies.
In ancient India, orthodox education was confined to a very small section of Indian society. To some extent, it was due to some absence of any written material. Priestly schools in India had devised a transferring knowledge to succeeding generations in the form of hymns, where there was extreme sanctity.
Practice and experience matter a lot in orthodox education. This type of system led the society to have more production, economic efficiency and specialization in various areas of activities like, spinning, weaving, pottery making, bead making, seal making, terracotta, handicrafts, brick-laying, metal work, etc.
But still, illiterate masses get the benefit of the knowledge of learned sages and munies. On the basis of their scholarly researches and experiences, the sages prescribed certain guidelines in the form of rituals to be followed by common men. This is still being followed to some extent in India.
Conventional vs Non-Conventional Education
Teaching activity in the system of combination of conventional and non-conventional training can be safely treated as innovative creative activity. Most of the teachers have worked for a considerable part of their teaching life in a conventional school. Thus, the system of conventional and developing training is perceived as a ‘certain innovation’.
The new general-education system needs a teacher of a new type where the main goal is not to deliver knowledge to pupils but organize an independent activity of the pupils designed to master the methods of analysis and generalization of the teaching material.
The combination of conventional and non-conventional education considerably enriches interpersonal communication between the students and the teacher, which positively affects the results of training and the personality of the student. Every learner is involved
into training and organizing activity implemented through communication. The learners are encouraged and blamed in a benevolent atmosphere of communication. Communication in such lessons functions primarily as mutual assistance, correction and assessment. A good emotional contact facilitates increase in motivation to study and raises the level of communicative culture. Following is the tabled main features of combination of conventional and non-conventional methods of training.
| Conventional Teaching | Non conventional Teaching |
|---|---|
| It is basically passive learning, where the child listens to teacher and follows directions from the teacher who sets the pace for instructions. | Active learning, where the moves freely, choosing her own work and the pace at which it is being done. Teacher, if any, may just be a facilitator. |
| Students provided with knowledge, skills and experience. | General development of students and mastering of learning modules. |
| Core competence - Examples, facts, arguments and text, a dedicated time and effort, the purpose is to master defined skills and develop socially. | Holistic development as it includes generalization of law, theory, rule and concept. Cognitive, social and psychological development of mind. |
| There is constant peer contact. | There is limited peer contact. |
| Group, individual, whole class. | Teamwork and collective way of training. |
| Verbal, visual and practical limited contact time. | Problem statement, partial search and heuristic/brainstorming methods. |
| Control and assessment by the teacher. | Self-control and self-assessment. |
| Subject-object relations. | Cooperation and collaboration. |
Non-conventional education basically deals with the distance education and also with the concepts such as online education. In this chapter, distance education has been dealt with separately.
Regulatory and Policy Framework Structure of Higher Education in India
Now again we get ourselves shifted to higher learning in post independence India. Education is in concurrent list where both Central and State governments can legislate.
Regulatory Framework of Higher Education in India
While the centre coordinates and determines the standards in higher and technical education, school education is primarily the responsibility of the state. The key policy-making agencies for higher education
are as follows.
1. Central government: It lays down the National Policy on Education. It provides grants to the UGC and establishes Central Universities/Institutions of national importance in the country. It is also responsible for declaring an educational institution as ‘Deemed-to be University’ on the recommendations of the UGC.
2. State government: Many states have also set up state councils and advisory boards to provide guidelines for proper functioning of higher education institution in the states. State councils for higher education coordinates the roles of government, universities and apex regulatory agencies in higher education within the state.
3. Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) was set up for coordination and cooperation between the union and the states in the field of education, including policy making.
Apex Level Bodies
There are eight Apex Level Bodies (Regulatory Bodies/
Research Councils) under the Department of Higher
Education, which are responsible for higher education
University Education System in India
The word ‘university’ is derived from the Latin word Universitas, which means specialized associations between students and teachers.
Universities are the seats of higher learning from where the society gets its leaders in Science, Arts and various other fields of national life. University education aims at providing knowledge and wisdom for developing personality.
The functions of the university mainly include providing instruction, conducting research and postgraduate studies and giving affiliation and extension to the colleges under it.
In India, university means a university established or incorporated by or under a central act, a provincial act, or a state act and includes any
such institution as may be recognized by the UGC in accordance with the regulations made under this Act.
Universities have degree-granting powers and are responsible for conducting examinations. They have autonomy in matters of fees and curriculum design. They also have affiliating powers for colleges within a particular geographical region.
On the other hand, degree-granting colleges have autonomy in admissions. However, they have to follow the fee, examination and curriculum standards of the university they are affiliated to.
in India. These bodies can be broadly divided into two categories (i) regulatory bodies and (ii) research councils.
Regulatory Bodies
There are three regulatory bodies—University Grants Commission, All India Council for Technical Education, and Council of Architecture to regulate higher education in India.
University Grants Commission
UGC governs universities in India and came into existence on 28 December 1953. It became a statutory organization established by an act of Parliament in 1956.
- According to Section 12 of UGC Act, the main function of UGC is coordination, determination and maintenance of standards in universities.
- It also disburses funds within the university education system. Most importantly, it only acts as a recommendatory body since it does not have any power to establish or derecognize any university.
- UGC consists of the Chairman, Vice-Chairman, and 10 other members appointed by the Central government. Secretary is the Executive Head. It
functions from New Delhi as well as its six regional offices located in Bangalore, Bhopal, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Kolkata and Pune. - UGC also implements various schemes aimed at improving the quality of higher education, like Universities with Potential for Excellence (UPE),
Colleges with Potential for Excellence (CPE), Centre with Potential for Excellence and a Particular Area (CPEPA), Special Assistance Programme (SAP), Basic Scientific Research (BSR), etc. - Sir Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar, a Professor of Chemistry, called up as the ‘Father of Research Laboratories’, and also the first director-general of the CSIR was the first Chairman of UGC. Professor Dhirendra Pal Singh is the current chairman of UGC.
Categorization of Universities
Universities can be set up only through legislation or the deemed route. At present, the main constituents of universities or university-level institutions are listed below.
ugc.ac.in as on March 1, 2019.
In addition, there are many university level institutions. In the consolidated UGC list, there is description of 47 universities.
Central Universities
A central university or a union university in India is established by the Act of Parliament and is under the purview of the Department of Higher Education in the Union Human Resource Development Ministry. In
general, universities in India are recognized by UGC, which draws its power from the University Grants Commission Act, 1956.
- There are 49 central universities under the purview of MHRD. Out of them, 16 new central universities were established in 2009 by an Act of Parliament, namely, Central Universities Act, 2009.
- IGNOU, New Delhi is funded directly by the MHRD.
- President of India is the Visitor of all central universities. In that capacity, he nominates some members to important committees of the university for their effective functioning. He also exercises powers in various legal matters and relevant amendments.
The state/UT wise list of central universities is given below.
Note: Nine Universities namely:
1. Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur.
2. Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi.
3. Indian Maritime University, Chennai.
4. Nalanda University, Rajgir, Dist. Nalanda, Bihar.
5. South Asian University, Akbar Bhawan Campus in Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.
6. Rajiv Gandhi National Aviation University, Rae Bareli, Uttar Pradesh.
7. Rani LakshmiBhai Central Agricultural University, NH-75, Near Pahuj Dam, Gwalior Road, Jhansi (Utter Pradesh).
8. Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar.
9. National Sports University, Koutruk, Manipur.
They are not under the purview of UGC and therefore, no Plan and Non-Plan grant being released to these Nine Central Universities.
Indian National Defence University (INDU) is a proposed university of defence of the Government of India, which will be established at Binola in Gurgaon, Haryana. The principle proposal was accepted by the Union Cabinet on 13 May 2010 and is expected to become functional by 2018–19.
State Universities
A university established or incorporated by a Provincial Act or by a State Act is called a state university.
The state universities are included in the List of 12 (B) of UGC Act, 1956 and are eligible for central assistance.
Although the development of state universities is the primary concern of State governments, development grants, including grants under special schemes, are provided to all eligible state universities. Such grants facilitate the creation, augmentation, and upgradation of infrastructural facilities that are not normally available from the State government or other sources of funds.
State universities dominate university education in India as they account for almost half the universities and also for 84% of total enrollment.
Private Universities
A university established through the state or central act by a sponsoring body, namely a society registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 or any other corresponding law for the time being in force, in a state or a public trust or a company registered under Section 25 of the Companies Act, 1956 is called a private university. The private universities are competent to award degrees as specified by UGC under Section 22 of the UGC Act with the approval of the statutory councils, wherever required through their main campus. The first private university set up in 1995 was the Sikkim Manipal University of Health, Medical and Technological Science, Gangtok.Deemed to be University
A deemed to be university, commonly known as a deemed university, refers to a high-performing institution, as declared by the Central government under Section 3 of the UGC Act, 1956.
Deemed universities can be approved only by an executive order after UGC recommendation. Although they enjoy all the powers of a university, they do not
have the right to affiliate colleges.
1. Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, and Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Delhi, were the first two institutes to be granted a deemed status. IISc was granted the status in 1958 though it was set up in the year 1908.
2. Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE) was the first private institution to be declared a deemed university in 1976.
The following institutions of higher learning are few prominent examples of deemed to be university.
1. National University of Educational Planning and Administration (NUEPA), New Delhi.
2. Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan, New Delhi.
3. Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, New Delhi.
4. Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati.
5. National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal.
6. Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Mumbai.
The top-ranking states in terms of total number of universities are Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
The 11th Five-year plan envisaged the establishment of 14 world-class central universities (renamed as innovative universities aiming at world-class standards).
Note: P. N. Tandon Committee in 2009 suggested blacklisting 44 deemed universities, saying they lacked the required quality. In 2015, UGC asked 10 deemed universities including BITS Pilani to shut their off-campus centers. In February 2016, UGC amended its regulation allowing private deemed universities to have up to six off-campuses. This ceiling won’t apply in case of government-established and managed deemed universities
Meta University and CIC Concepts
During the 12th Plan, UGC initiated a concept of Meta University. The main purpose of the Meta University is to share learning resources by different Universities by using latest technologies available in order to enable students to benefit from learning resources available in other institutions. Meta Universities represent 2nd Generation Universities, free from physical boundary conditions and able to operate in virtual space, taking advantage of the innovation and flexibility possible in such domains.
For the first time in India, University of Delhi and Jamia Millia Islamia, the two main universities of India, under the Meta University Concept have started a 2-year joint degree program ‘Master of Mathematics Education’ (equivalent to M.Sc. Mathematics Education) from the academic session 2015.
Cluster Innovation Centre (CIC) is a Government of India-funded institute established under the aegis of the University of Delhi. It was founded in 2011 and
introduced innovation as a credit-based course for the first time in India.
Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan (RUSA)
Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS), which was launched in 2013. It aims at providing strategic funding to eligible state higher educational institutions. The central funding (in the ratio of 65:35 for general category states and 90:10 for special category states) would be norm-based and outcome dependent. The funding would flow from the central ministry through the State governments/UTs to the State Higher Education Councils before reaching the identified institutions. The funding to the states would be made on the basis of critical appraisal of State Higher Education Plans, which would describe each
state’s strategy to address the issues of equity, access and excellence in higher education.
RUSA is implemented and monitored through an institutional structure comprising the National Mission Authority, Project Approval Board and the National Project Directorate at the centre, and the State Higher Education Council and State Project Directorate at the state level.
RUSA programme also seeks enhancement of intake capacity of the existing institutions of higher education. It is designed on the lines of the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan with an aim to increase Gross Enrolment Ratio to 25%, which at present is just 17%. It proposes to set up 800 new colleges under central universities (40 central universities covering 20 colleges each), 400 new college cluster universities, and a set of other new universities under various categories.
According to UGC sources, the promotion of evening colleges and universities would not only help in enhancing enrolment but would also provide opportunities to working-class for improving their academic and professional qualifications. This would help in making optimum use of the existing infrastructure that remains unused for an average of 16–18 hours a day. The shift system of courses in colleges would be effectively supported by separate qualified teachers.
Other Higher Level Institutions
Inter-University Centres (IUCs)
UGC has established autonomous IUCs within the university system with an objective to provide common, advanced, centralized facilities and services for universities, in order to offer the best expertise in each field to teachers and researchers across the country
Nuclear Science Centre at New Delhi (now called Inter University Accelerator Centre) was the first such research centre established in 1994.
At present, there are six IUCs functioning within the university system and these are as follows.
1. Inter-University Accelerator Centre (IUAC), New Delhi.
2. Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and AstroPhysics (IUCAA), Pune.
3. UGC-DAE Consortium for Scientific Research (UGC-DAECSR), Indore.
4. Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET), Ahmedabad.
5. Consortium for Educational Communication (CEC), New Delhi.
6. National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), Bangalore.
Association of Indian Universities
Association of Indian Universities (AIU) is a forum for administrators and academicians of member universities to exchange views and discuss matters of common concern. The idea originated during Vice Chancellors’ Conference at Shimla in 1924 that was convened by Lord Reading.
It got its present name in 1973. The members include traditional universities, open universities, professional universities, institutes of national importance, and deemed to be universities. In addition, there is a provision of granting associate membership to universities of neighbouring countries.
It brings out a number of useful publications, including the Universities Handbook, research papers, and a weekly journal titled University News.
Institutions of National Importance
An institution is established by an act of Parliament and is declared as an Institution of National Importance, such as IITs and IIMs among others. Some institutions are established or incorporated by the State Legislature Act.
Research Councils
1. Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), New Delhi.
2. Indian Council of Philosophical Research (ICPR), New Delhi.
3. Centre for Studies in Civilizations, Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture (PHISPC).
4. Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR), Guwahati.
5. National Council of Rural Institutes (NCRI), Hyderabad.
LANGUAGE UNIVERSITIES
India has six language universities out of which three are deemed to be universities and three are central universities. The deemed to be universities are for promotion of Sanskrit and the three central universities are, one each, for the promotion of English and foreign language, Hindi and Urdu.
UGC is funding these language universities.
1. Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, New Delhi.
2. Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati.
3. English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad.
4. Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya, Wardha.
5. Maulana Azad National Urdu University, Hyderabad.
6. Rashtriya Sanskrit Sansthan, New Delhi.
Few Important Offices or Agencies in Higher Education
Subordinate Offices Under the Bureau of Language Education
1. Central Hindi Directorate: New Delhi, was set up in the year 1960 to develop Hindi as a link language throughout India, in pursuance of Article 351 of the Constitution of India. Its regional offices are located in Chennai, Kolkata, Hyderabad and Guwahati.
2. Commission for Scientific and Technical Terminology was constituted to evolve and define scientific and technical terms in Hindi and in all Indian languages.
3. Central Institute of Indian Languages: Mysore, set up in 1969 to help in evolving and implementing the language policy of Government of India and to coordinate the development of Indian languages by conducting research in areas of language analysis, language pedagogy, language technology and language use in the society.
4. Regional Language Centres (RLC) located at Bhubaneswar, Pune, Mysore, Patiala, Guwahati, Solan, and Lucknow work for the implementation of the three-language formula of the government and for preparation of instructional materials.
5. National Testing Service (NTS) was approved by the MHRD in 2006–2007 and implemented by the Centre of Testing and Evaluation (CT and E) under Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL), Mysore.
6. Linguistic Data Consortium for Indian Languages (LDC-IL), A central sector scheme was implemented by the Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL), Mysore from the financial year 2007–2008.
7. National Translation Mission: On the basis of recommendations of the National Knowledge Commission, MHRD set up the National Translation Mission (NTM) with the main objective of functioning as a clearing house for all translation activities, both theoretical and practical, in as many Indian languages as possible. Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL), Mysore is the nodal organization for operation of the scheme.
8. National Book Trust was established in 1957 with the objective of promoting a culture of reading in the society by publishing good literature at affordable price in all major Indian languages including English and by undertaking book promotion activities, such as organization of seminars, workshops, book fairs and book exhibitions in India and abroad.
Classical Languages
Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Odia are the six classical languages in India. Tamil was the first language to be assigned the status of classical language in 2004. Odia was the last one to be assigned the status in February 2014, but it is the first language from the IndoAryan linguistic group to be assigned the status.
Sahitya Academy’s Expert Committee gave the following four criteria for a classical language.
1. The high antiquity of early texts/recorded history of over 1500 to 2000 years.
2. A body of ancient literature/texts that is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers.
3. The literary tradition should be original and not borrowed from another speech community.
4. The classical language and literature should be distinct from the modern and there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms of offshoots.
The proposals are made by the Ministry of Culture. Once a language is declared classical, it gets financial assistance for setting up a centre of excellence for the study of that language and also opens up an avenue for two major awards for scholars of eminence. Besides, the UGC can be requested to create to begin with at least in Central Universities, a certain number of professional chairs for classical languages for scholars of eminence in that language.
The fathers of the Constitution conferred Sanskrit the special status by Article 351 as it was the primary source language for many languages including Hindi.
Five languages in the world, namely Chinese, Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek and Latin have been assigned the status of Classical languages.
ACCREDITATION IN HIGER EDUCATION
Higher education sector ensures quality of the educational process with the help of accreditation agencies established for the purpose.
National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC)
NAAC is an autonomous body established in 1994 by the UGC with its headquarters in Bangalore. It was established as per recommendations of NPE (1986).
The prime function of NAAC is to assess and accredit institutions of higher learning, universities and colleges or their departments, schools, institutions, programmes, etc.
It regularly publishes manuals and promotion materials for assessment and accreditation.
National Board of Accreditation (NBA)
Set up in 1994, NBA is an autonomous body established by AICTE to conduct periodical evaluation of technical courses offered in India. It has the authority to recognize or derecognize institutions or programmes. The accreditation process is not linked to funding.
Accreditation Board (AB)
AB was set up by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research in 1996 with a mandate to accredit agricultural institutions. Accreditation done by AB is generally valid for a period between 5–10 years and is linked to funding year wise number of institutions accredited.
It is important to note that although accreditation is voluntary in India, some states, such as Karnataka and Tamil Nadu have made it mandatory, especially for professional institutions. Despite this, only very few institutions are accredited. In fact, only 36% engineering and 10% management programs have been accredited by NBA.
Government is in the process of creating a single independent body to regulate various aspects of higher education. The same should be done at the earliest. However, due care needs to be taken to ensure that it gets adequate independence and autonomy.
NON-CONVENTIONAL EDUCATION
Open and Distance Education
Usually, we include ‘Distance Education’ as the main base of ‘Non-conventional’ education, that is mentioned under new NTA-NET syllabus. Thus, distance education here is being discussed as its part once again.
Today, two terms that are being used almost interchangeably are ‘Open Learning’ and ‘Distance Education’ and they are often combined to be known as Open and Distance Learning (ODL). Open learning is a philosophy, whereas distance education is the mode used for translating it into reality as the two are complementary to each other.
Distance education (DE) is an umbrella term that describes all the teaching and learning arrangements in which the learner and the teacher are separated by space and time. In fact, it is a mode of delivering education and instruction to learners who are not physically present in a traditional classroom setting. Transaction of the curriculum is effected by means of specially prepared materials [self-study (learning) materials] which are delivered to the learners at their doorstep through various media, such as print, television, radio, satellite, audio/video tapes, CD-ROMs, Internet, etc. In addition, a technological medium replaces the interpersonal communication of conventional classroombased education that takes place between the teacher and the learners. Communication between the institution, teacher and learners is mainly through electronic media (telephone, interactive radio counselling, teleconferencing, videoconferencing, chat sessions, email, website, etc.) and also through postal correspondence and limited face-to-face contact sessions held at Study Centres that are set up by the DE institutions as close to the learners’ homes as possible.
Open learning covers a wide range of innovations and reforms in the educational sector that advocates flexibility to the learner with regard to entry and exit, pace and place of study, method of study, choice and combination of courses; assessment and course completion. The lesser the restrictions, the higher the degree of openness. The open learning system aims to redress social or educational inequality and to offer opportunities not provided by conventional colleges or universities. Educational opportunities are planned deliberately so that access to education is available to larger sections of the society.
Therefore, ODL is a term that accepts the philosophy of ‘openness’ and uses the ‘distance mode’ of learning.
ODL occupies a special place in the Indian higher education system because of its major contribution in enhancing the Gross Enrollment Ratio and democratization of higher education to large segments of the Indian population particularly to reach out to the unreached and to meet the demands of lifelong learning, which has become more of a necessity in the knowledge society.
The major objectives of DE system are as follows.
1. To democratize higher education to large segments of the population, in particular to the disadvantaged groups, such as those living in remote and rural areas, working people, women, etc.
2. To provide an innovative system of university-level education, which is both flexible and open in terms of methods and pace of learning, combination of courses, eligibility for enrollment, age of entry, conduct of examination and implementation of the programmes of study.
3. To provide an opportunity for upgradation of skills and qualifications.
4. To develop education as a lifelong activity to enable people to update their knowledge or acquire knowledge in new areas.
India has one of the largest DE systems in the world, second only to China. There are the following types of institutions offering DE.
1. National Open University
2. State Open Universities
3. Distance Education Institutions (DEIs) at:
(a) Institutions of National Importance
(b) Central Universities
(c) State Universities
(d) Deemed to be Universities
(e) State Private Universities
4. DEIs at Standalone Institutions
(a) Professional Associations
(b) Government Institutions
(c) Private institutions
Historical Developments in Distance Education in India
The Expert Committee under the chairmanship of Dr D. S. Kothari in 1960s recommended the institution of correspondence courses in view of the greater flexibility, economic viability and innovative methods of imparting education. The committee also suggested that correspondence courses in India should be administered by the universities only and in the first instance, the initiative was done in the University of Delhi as a pilot project.
• Hence, in 1962, the University of Delhi’s School of Correspondence Courses and Continuing Education was started. Subsequently, the Education Commission (1964–66) under the chairmanship of Dr. D. S. Kothari also perceived correspondence
Pingback: UGC NET Paper 1 - Teaching and Research Aptitude - WebComm.in
This was a delight to read. You show an impressive grasp on this subject! I specialize about Social Media Marketing and you can see my posts here at my blog Webemail24 Keep up the incredible work!